Whi Is Ihrm Such an Important Issue for Mne’s ?

Why is IHRM such an important issue for MNE’s? International Human Resources Management is the process of procuring, allocating, and effectively utilizing human resources in a multinational corporation. It is born thanks to globalization and to the growth of multinational enterprises all around the world. Globalization and the effective use of international human resources are two major issues facing firms in today’s global economy. As more and more firms operate internationally, there is a clear need to understand how to manage human resources that are located outside the domestic environment.A HRM system cannot be an efficient approach for a multinational enterprise (MNE) to optimize their employees’ performances because compared to IHRM: it has less HR activities, a smaller perspective, less involvement in employees’ personal lives, and difficulties to adapt to the workforce mix (expatriates and locals). Indeed, an MNE has to deal with different types o f employees: * Host-country Nationals (HCNs): locals of a country a MNE operates in a subsidiary. * Parent-country Nationals (PCNs): expatriates from the country where the MNE has its headquarters. Third country Nationals (TCNs): employees from countries other than the host or home country. These are also expatriates. The correlation between HCNs and PCNs in an MNE is crucial because they both have different points of view about the activity. HCNs are useful thanks to their knowledge of foreign market, language and needs and they know human resources policies for local employees, whereas PCNs have the ability to maintain control (for example with a newly established subsidiary), to adapt an ethnocentric attitude and to process an expatriation management (staffing, training, compensation).An IHRM system is a product of distinct activities, functions and processes that are directed at attracting, developing and maintaining the human resources of a MNE. Indeed, IHRM seeks to assist org anizations to make the most effective use of their human resources in the international context. Schuler said: â€Å"IHRM for many firms is likely to be critical to their success, and effective IHRM can make the difference between survival and extinction for many MNEs†. This quote means that an MNE has different choices for its IHRM approach.The four generic IHRM orientations of MNEs: ethnocentric, polycentric, geocentric, and regiocentric, introduced by Perlmutter (1969) and Perlmutter and Heenan (1979), are widely recognized. * In an ethnocentric approach, the MNE exports the home HRM system abroad. Strategic decisions are made at the headquarters and subsidiaries are managed by expatriates. Like Porter said: â€Å"In a global industry, a firm must integrate its activities like HRM on a worldwide basis to capture the linkages among countries†. * An MNE with a polycentric approach adapts to the local HRM system that the local companies use.Foreign subsidiaries have a large autonomy and HCNs fill the senior positions. HCNs are more likely to be promoted to positions at headquarters. * In a geocentric approach, the MNE takes a worldwide approach to its operations: employees can be promoted to senior positions in both headquarters and subsidiaries according to their capabilities, regardless of nationality and location. * The regiocentric approach is similarly to the geocentric approach, but senior managers enjoy regional rather than global autonomy in decision-making.Each of these four approaches has certain advantages and disadvantages. The choice of approaches to IHRM depends on the interaction of home-country factors, host-country factors and firm characteristics. The firm has to adapt its HRM activities to each host country’s specific requirements. It is also linked to cultural environment, like Hofstede said: â€Å"Culture awareness from senior and middle management is essential†. The location of the country is one aspect of the context in which MNEs operate.The home-country factors include home HRM systems and domestic political, legal, economic and sociocultural factors. These factors impact on IHRM through their influence on a firm’s characteristics. Organizations in one country might thus share many similarities while being essentially different from those headquartered in other countries. According to Ferner (1997), even the most global companies remain deeply rooted in the national business systems of their country of origin. Without any internal or external influence, an MNE would export all of its own home HRM system to subsidiaries.IHRM is definitely an essential issue for MNEs because it depends on it to avoid barriers of distance, language, time and culture between employees, which often make it very difficult for managers to resolve conflicts. Nowadays, we can still wonder if it is possible to develop a generic IHRM model that could be widely applicable. â€Å"IHRM is of fundamental impo rtance in realizing an efficient and effective multinational organization because it enables the firm to deal with control and cross-cultural issues that are both internal and external to the firm† (Adler and Ghadar 1990).

Flooding in South Africa Essay

Most floods take hours or days to develop, giving residents enough time to prepare or evacuate. Others happen quickly and with little warning. These flash floods can be extremely dangerous and cause major damage to the landscape and the habitants of such an area. Disaster specialists have various ways of classifying floods according to their likelihood of occurring and the intensity of the flood. A hundred-year flood, for example, is an extremely large, destructive event that would theoretically be expected to happen only once every century. Heavy rain in a short period of time in the part of South Africa, caused more than hundreds of people to be homeless by heavy flooding. Floods caused many to seek refuge on rooftops and on trees. This catastrophe killed more than hundreds of people causing the death toll to rise. Recently these floods caused evacuation of the Kruger National, a game reserve in Northern South Africa. Floods also covered some farmlands and crops were killed as a result forcing farms to close. Most of the roads, dams and large buildings were damaged. Due to flooding some mines were forced to close, this the case of a coal mines in Limpopo. Floods frequently causes major infrastructure damage of roads, railway lines, electricity supply systems, water supply and sewage disposal systems. Bribges over rivers are particularly exposed to damage and disruption of transportation systems follows. The economic effects of flooding are often greater than the flood itself. (Parker 2000) According to Parker (2000) be cause floods frequently destroy crops and livestock, food shortages are not uncommon in the aftermath. Floods may affect food availability in a number of ways. Food stocks may be damaged if storage areas are flooded. Serious flooding usually disrupts transportation of food deficit areas, particularly in towns, which are cut off from supply sources and have inadequate food stock. Impacts of flooding may hinder the economic growth and development that is the high cost of relief and recovery may adversely impact investment in infrastructure and other development activities in the area and in certain cases may cripple the frail economy of the of the region. Recurrent flooding in a region may discourage long-term investments by the government and private sector alike. Lack of livehoods, combined with migration of skilled labour and inflation may have a negative impact on a region’s economic growth. Loss of resource can lead to high costs of goods and services, delaying its development programmes. (Drep operation international federation of Red Cross and crescent societies). Figure 2 three kid were during floods in Limpopo As discussed under various perspectives, it is clear from the assignment that floods had adverse impact on the socio-economic status of livehoods for people in South Africa more especially the residents of Limpopo. It is also evident that there are varying underlying causes of floods i South Africa. Places near the flood event are the most susceptible to the dangers of the floods. Proximity of these places and poverty were identified as being the main cause of vulnerability of people

Migration and Integration: African Americans and Mexican Americans in the U.S. Essay

A number of African Americans and Mexican Americans gradually migrated into the United States with the development of agriculture in the country. Although the reasons for their migration were different, the African Americans and Mexican Americans share similar situations as they tried to integrate into American society. The choice to migrate into the US was mainly attributed to their need to look for better opportunities, new lives, admiration and obstacles. Migration has a different meaning among African Americans, who had to go through a lot of suffering when they came into the country. They initially migrated into the United States as slaves and made to work in plantation and homes in the new world. They were also considered as commodities to be traded in the market. The working conditions of African Americans on the plantations were horrible even though they formed the foundation of the entire cotton industry. The conditions that African Americans had to go through when they migrated into the United States were detailed and explained in the book â€Å"In Motion: The African American Migration Experience. † The book gives a list of the first African Americans who arrived into the United States during the 1500s through the Caribbean and Mexico. This account is different from common knowledge, which indicates that they arrived through Jamestown in 1619. They settled in a number of southern states such as South Carolina, Florida, and Texas. A good number of slaves found safe haven from their owners in the marshlands and the Bahamas. Some of them even started to live with Native Americans. They started to adjust and embrace the culture of the place where they established themselves. They learned the local languages and other dialects. The twentieth century saw a good number of African Americans increase their influence in history. They played a significant role the development of industrial areas, even as racism continued to remind African Americans of their suffering in the past. A movement was started that saw a number of laws being altered to integrate equality in society. The government was compelled to include African Americans due to the legal system that they were able to establish. The views and contributions of African Americans were included in the formation of cultural and social policies. The Harlem renaissance during the 1920s and the 1930s was the most significant input that resulted to the acknowledgement of African American NEW IN AMERICA PAPER 3 culture and connected their culture with other cultures. The talents of African Americans in art, music, and literature started to emerge during the period. A number of authors were able to demonstrate their talents, which describe the experience of African Americans. It also resulted to the establishment of a number of African American political interest groups. These authors include Neela Larson, Zora Langston Hughes, and Zora Neale Hurston. Three of these political groups that emerged include the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the Nation of Islam, and the Negro Improvement Association. The African American culture also started to spread from the south. The culture and arts of American society were influenced by African, Haitian, and Caribbean cultures. The situation further enriched the culture of the African American population despite the adversity they faced along the way. This demonstrated the experience of African Americans when they migrated into the United States. At the start of the twentieth century, Mexican Americans were able to easily enter into the United States. An emergency quota act that was ratified by the United States allowed Mexican Americans to travel freely into the US. This act also limited the migration of citizens coming from countries in the Eastern hemisphere. Special allowances were even given to Mexicans by the US government due to the immigration law enacted by the US. The implementation of the immigration law gave credence to the significance of the labor provided by Mexicans, which enhanced the US economy. The act invalidated the literacy test that was enforced on Mexicans by farmers. However, this special allowance was cancelled following the economic crisis that affected the United States in 1929. Americans found it difficult to be employed due to the Great Depression, which resulted to an anti-immigration sentiment and compelled many Mexicans to go back home. Barricades were also set up between Mexico and the United States. However, the Second World War resulted to a labor shortage, which resulted to the creation of a bracer program that allowed Mexicans to work in the agricultural industry in the United States. A good number of Mexicans were able to receive allowances along with minimum wages. The situation was temporary and was only implemented while many American men were out in the battlefield. The United States did not allow the families of the braceros to join them to guarantee that they would return to their homeland. However, many Mexicans were NEW IN AMERICA PAPER 4 compelled to become illegal immigrants since they did not want to go back to Mexico. These illegal immigrants were able to stay employed and eventually made enough money due to the bracer program. By 1954, the United States was compelled to handle the increasing number of illegal immigrants. Operation Wetback was started together with a naturalization service and border patrols that immediately deported illegal immigrants. However, the operation was stopped due to a number of issues that included maltreatment of Mexicans and violence. The children of the illegal immigrants that were born in the US were also deported together with their parents. The labor shortage that was still prevalent among companies resulted to the establishment of factories in Mexico. The factories were called maquillas or maguiladoras, which was beneficial for both the United States and Mexico. Among the benefits that Mexico received were the sending of equipment for the factories. The value of equipment was untaxed. The equipment was also sent as a whole instead of being transported one component at a time. The border between Mexico and the United States was the first barrier that illegal Mexicans had to deal with if they want to go into the US. The border extends from Tijuana, Baja California and Imperial Beach California along the western side until Brownsville, Matamoras and Tamaulipas, Texas along the eastern side. It goes through different terrains that included major urban areas and harsh deserts. Most of the Mexicans who were able to cross the border settled in the states of Texas, New Mexico, California, Arizona, and Colorado. Mexican Americans played a role in the development of cities along the southwest, including Tucson, San Antonio, Albuquerque, Dallas, and Los Angeles. Although a good number of Mexican Americans were not able to go through formal education, they were able to contribute to the development of the Midwest, from Michigan all the way to Kansas. They provided labor for the steel factories and railroad system. Since the Mexicans were willing to provide labor in the valley in the southwestern states, their culture had a significant influence in these areas. Their contribution allowed the valley to become one of the richest valleys in the world. Mexicans also made some significant contributions in sports, language, demographics, fine arts, and politics. REFERENCES WWW. GWU. EDU GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY BY A ETZIONI – 2000 – Coverage: 1964-2008 (Vols. 51-95) Links to External Content: 2009-2012 (Vol. 95, No. 4 – Vol. 99, No. 1) Published by: Organization of American Historians NEW IN AMERICA PAPER 5.

Importance of employee performance management Essay

Importance of employee performance management - Essay Example 72). â€Å"Given the current challenges of the economic climate and high rates of unemployment, performance management and employee evaluation is likely to remain a hot topic† (Gliddon, 2004 cited in Newman, 2008, p. 172). In simple words, performance management of employees is a process of getting the most out of employees. In order to achieve this, organizations need to work on a range of factors that include but are not limited to employees’ motivation, continued learning, skill improvement, allocation of right jobs to the right people, fostering teamwork, and providing the employees with an environment where they can thrive with their capabilities. Performance management has probably never been as important in the organizational context as it is today since the workplace is more dynamic than ever before with new kinds of technology surfacing and being integrated into the work setup so frequently. Managers in the contemporary age not only face the challenge of keepin g updated with the latest advancements of technology and integrating them into the workplace, but they also have to take the required measures to enable the employees to make effective use of those technologies. This makes it a continuous process with great margin of trial and error, requiring great knowledge and experience to handle the intricate issues with respect to performance management. â€Å"If you are a manager, the progress principle holds clear implications for where to focus your efforts. It suggests that you have more influence than you may realize over employees’ well-being, motivation, and creative output. Knowing what serves to catalyze and nourish progress—and what does the opposite—turns out to be the key to effectively managing people and their work† (Amabile and Kramer, 2011). Discussion Why is performance management important? Performance management of employees in an organization derives its importance from the fact that it is a way to reinforce the decisions related to organizational personnel like those related to transfer, promotion, compensation and reward, training and skill development, planning of human resources, and development of the organization as a whole (Bhattacharyya, 2011, p. 58). The level to which each of these factors is considered important may vary from one organization to another but all of these factors govern the performance of employees in any organization. Besides the primary importance of the different factors in different organizations, performance management strengthens the relationship between the management and the subordinates, and improves motivation and flow of communication in the organization, thus improving its overall performance. From the perspective of human capital, performance management plays a very important role in the development of the human capital of an organization (Smither and London, 2009). The importance of performance management of employees in the organizat ions is elaborated with the help of some case studies below: Case Study 1 One of the prime motivations behind conducting performance reviews is eradication of bad performers from the organization. This is a case in which performance management helped in the identification and weeding out of a bad leader. Usually organizations tell their managers to establish a paper trial to justify the termination of an employee that is deemed a poor performer. In such cases,

Critically consider to what extent this offers a mutual gains approach Essay

Critically consider to what extent this offers a mutual gains approach to people management - Essay Example The flexibility of approach and perspectives to change become high point that hugely helps to meet the challenges of time. The innovative measures and incentive driven tools that are linked to the performance are increasingly being used as vital elements of business strategy. Scholars assert that performance management is strategic tool or process that motivates workforce for optimal performance (Bloisi, 2007; Armstrong and Baron, 2005). Apart from incentives, commitment to work and loyalty towards employers is considerably increased when the employees are provided scope of enhancing their professional skills and competencies through in-house training and development. Financial and emotional security, job satisfaction etc are factors that promote trust building and induce high performance and retention of employees. Hence, HPWP not only benefits employees but also the employers as they are able to retain high performing human capital that significantly influences the revenues. Most importantly, they are able to maintain their competitive advantage through hard times as HPWP provides organization with fl exible approach and innovative performance related measures to meet contemporary challenges for optimal performance. (words:

Law for business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Law for business - Essay Example Sharma for injury of her son. In business transactions there are certain terms and conditions which are eithor clearly mentioned at the time of making the contract or these might be implied be the law. When these conditions are express and are not otherwise contradictory to the legal provisions enacted in the country, these conditions are legal and are liable to be upheld by the court of law. However, these conditions are not express in the contract. Here a question raises that if there is no expressly defined contract between the buyer and the seller, then how a buyer can protect his rights? This gap is filled by some implied conditions in form of implied warranties and guarentees in any sale of goods. These implied terms are important because it is not always possible to enter into a written contract everytime, when thre is a sale. warranty of fitness for a particular purpos is one of these warranties. As per Section 14 (2) of Sales of Goods Act 19791, (Sales of Goods Act, 1979) the seller sells goods in the course of a business, there is an implied term that the goods supplied under the contract are of satisfactory quality and for the purpose of its usage. Section (2) (b) speaks of the satisfactory quality of goods including their state and condition including its appearance and finishing, safety, freedom from defects and durability etc. However, there is no requirement for satisfactory quality if attention of the buyer is drawn before finalizing of contract or if buyer examines the goods for defects beforehand/prior to making contract. As per Section 2 of Consumer Protection Act 19872, (Consumer Protection Act, 1987) if damage is caused, wholly or partly, by defect in the product, the producer of the product and the person who imported or supplied the product shall be liable for damage. Similarly, as per judgment in (KG

2008 May issue of Women's Health Magazine Critic Essay - 1

2008 May issue of Women's Health Magazine Critic - Essay Example Articles such as Burn More Fat were the highlight of this issue of Women’s Health Magazine and the lead article was assisted by the picture of a slim and trim model. In a time where increasing criticism was being given to the extreme to which models were going to look as slim as possible, this was a brave move on the magazine’s part but was a move executed very intelligently since the magazine was strewn with complimenting articles on good health and physical fitness altogether. It was apparent that the issue of the magazine had chosen to bring together a combination of looks as well as health in this issue. The article also held a subscript which gave the article a tacky sort of appeal. The subscript said A Rock Solid Body by 1st June. This was not a particularly wise decision since not all women desire having a rock solid body and a large number of women still choose to look womanly and feel soft and comforting to their partners when they are in their presence. In thi s regard, the article seemed quite out of place in the magazine that was sporting other articles that focused on the woman’s health. This article seemed to go a little overboard. However, other articles such as Lost in Translation – What he’s trying to tell you were quite amusing and entertaining and needless to say, it was articles such as these in the May issue of Women’s Health Magazine that kept the reader riveted. Moreover, it was articles such as these that drew the attention of the reader towards the magazine in the first place. Designed for the reader’s amusement and relationship intelligence, this was an article that must have been responsible for a significant number of sales for the magazine since it stood out amongst the rest of the articles in the fact that it was the only article on relationships in the entire May 2008 issue of the magazine. Perhaps the first thing to catch the reader’s eyes was the article All New Way’s to Healthier Eating which

China has excellent environmental policies on paper. The problem is Essay

China has excellent environmental policies on paper. The problem is that the policies are not implemented do you agree with this - Essay Example â€Å"The high-growth, resource-intensive development strategy China has pursued, coupled with the norms and institutional relationships designed to support this development strategy, have no doubt played a critical role in the deteriorating quality of the environment† (Jahiel, n.d., p. 34). The decentralization of economy has provided the officials both operating at the provincial level and at the regional level with incentives and means to develop and advance the local economies. There has been a pervasive emphasis on the consumerism, development, and profit in the proclamations of the government as well as throughout the society. This has made the local governments feel justified in intervening against such regulations as environmental protection since they are considered unfavorable to the growth of economy. Rapid growth of economy has been the major goal of the Chinese state since the 1990’s. This goal has been supported by the state by means of institutional arran gements like creation of the consumerist and growth-oriented social norms, and the decentralization of political economy that spurs local initiative. ... ild pursuit of economic growth, and failed to avoid some of the worst pollution scenarios we, as policymakers, had predicted† (Geping cited in King, 2013). In its attempt to maintain the economic boom, the enterprises owned by state in China that account for the employment of up to 110 to 115 million workers need to be shut down or streamlined, which would result in the ruse of social dislocation as well as unemployment (Knup, n.d., p. 9). There is a lot of tendency of growth in the social unrest as the urban centers teem with the unemployed people providing them with no previous benefits. Demands of more consumer goods and food have increased because of the rising standards of living at the same time, that have increased the pressure on the government to sustain further growth of economy since the expectations of the people have to be satisfied. Indeed, the biggest challenge that the Chinese leaders are facing today is how to sustain the growth of economy and simultaneously ad dress the rising social challenges. China faces significant environmental challenges-what is it doing to head them off? Transformations in the environmental policies of China are a fundamental component of the Scientific Outlook on Development that is amongst the major national strategic theories of China. With the frequent occurrence of natural disasters and climate changes on a global scale, the whole world has paid attention toward China’s environmental policy, since it is a major power of the world in the present age. China induced major changes in its environmental policy in the 1990s. The environmental policy was integrated into the growth strategy of China. China went on board with a comprehensive approach to the environmental policy as the administration of Hu Jintao commenced in the

The rights to language as a civil right Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The rights to language as a civil right - Essay Example One of the rights provided under civil rights is the right to language. Human communication would be limited and impaired if language did not exist. Different languages are widely spoken because of the different racial, cultural, and national backgrounds of the different groups of people in the country. The rights to language, also known as linguistic human rights, allow a person to decide on their own accord what language or languages they prefer to use as a means of communication, whether publicly or privately. (Moraes 43) Language rights were first recognized as an international human right when they were included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. There is a distinction made between language rights and linguistic human rights. Language rights cover a wider range, and one can argue that all linguistic human rights are language rights, but not all language rights are linguistic human rights. Language rights are necessary basic human rights to ensure a dignified life, For example, the right of access to an official language. Linguistic human rights are not strictly essential human rights; they exist to improve on the basic human and civil basic right to language. They are above basic needs making them accessory rights under language rights (Moraes 47) The right to learn foreign languages is an example of linguistic human rights is. Individual linguistic rights are provided for in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These are the Individual linguistic rights are applicable privately or publicly. According to Article 26 contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, â€Å"all people have the right to education with relevance to the language of medium of instruction, for example in the U.S., the Bilingual Education Act (BEA) of 1968 catered to students of Limited English Speaking Ability (LESA). The Bilingual Act, Title VI of the civil rights Act of 1964, was passed following the Civil Rights movement that peaked

Financial Performance and risk management analysis of Domino printing Essay

Financial Performance and risk management analysis of Domino printing plc 01302 - Essay Example With 2200 employees, Domino printing plc is operating its business operations in more than 120 countries worldwide (Domino, b). The share of global sales of the company in different regions is illustrated below: In this report, the competition circumstances and international business operation will be discussed with the help of analyzing the Domino printing plc financial performance. Furthermore, the risks management related to exchange rate risk and country and political risk will be evaluated. At this time, Domino printing plc has expanded its business worldwide in which the primary segmentation is being done geographically which include three prime regions such as Europe, America, and Asia with the rest of the world. The sales revenue from these prime regions is presented below: In the region of Europe, Domino printing plc do direct sales in the several countries, rest of the distribution is done by the distributors. Europe was a good market for the company in the year 2014. Company managed to generate 12% higher sales in 2014 as compared to 2013 as a result of growth in Germany (Domino, 2014b). However, in the region of America the growth was not satisfactory especially in Central and South America due to the 7% decline in local currency and the weak and unstable economic performance in Brazil and Argentina (Domino, 2014b). Asia and the other remaining regions has becomes the growing areas for Domino printing plc. In this region the demand of marking and coding has been increases in 2013 because of the increased number in the middle class. China and India were the strong market for the company in 2014 because the sale was high in these countries (Domino, 2014b). In the year 2014, company’s i-Tech product were launched including A520i continuous ink jet printer and V230i thermal transfer over printer which received a positive response from the customers, moreover, company also remains the member of FTSE4Good index (Domino, 2014b). However the

The development of the Islamic financial sector in Bahrain, Qatar and Essay

The development of the Islamic financial sector in Bahrain, Qatar and Dubai - Essay Example They were staunch in their outlook and believed that such profit making activities would violate the principles of the Islam religion. However, in 1975 the Emir of Dubai passed a decree for the establishment of the Dubai Islamic Bank and this heralded a new era of modern Islamic financial activities. Following this example, other GCC nations also established their respective central banking authorities. These Central banks and the other financial authorities always ensured that the countries’ financial activities were conducted in compliance with the regional Islamic principles. Therefore, these business operations are known as the modern Islamic financial and banking functions. In 1982, the state of Qatar established the country’s first Islamic bank. Qatar’s financial economy is dominated by the presence of commercial banks such as the Qatar National Bank, the Commercial Bank of Qatar, the Doha Bank, Qatar Islamic Bank, Masraf Al Rayan, the Qatar International Islamic Bank and so on. These banks have primarily concentrated on expanding their business activities in the domestic economy and have also formed Islamic affiliate institutions for this purpose. For example, the Qatar National Bank has established the Al Islami subsidiary, the Commercial Bank of Qatar has formed its Al Safa Islamic Banking affiliate, the Doha Bank has created the Doha Bank Islamic and so on. Gradually, the small economy of Qatar was flooded by intense competition from a plethora of different financial institutions. This is turn encouraged the country’s existing commercial banks to diversify their business and expand their operations in the international market. Many of the banks established affiliate organizations in foreign countries to enhance their business prospects in those places. The Qatar Islamic Bank formed the European Finance House in London, in

Biological Personality Perspective by William Sheldon Essay Example for Free

Biological Personality Perspective by William Sheldon Essay According to William Sheldon, an American psychologist, personality of persons and their temperaments are developed according to the type of physical appearance the person has. Sheldon became to believe that there are three fundamental elements that contributed to person’s actual physique. He devoted his time trying to find the relationship between one’s physique and one’s character and personality. The process he underwent is examining photographs of various people, of various cultures and of various body types. He examined photographs by front, back and side views and generated information which he believes could determine one’s personality. After careful study, he generated the 3 body types which are: endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy. According to Sheldon, those persons with endomorphic body are those with soft bodies, underdeveloped muscles, round-shaped and over-developed digestive system. It is said that persons with this type of body are usually tolerant, sociable, relaxed and has the need for affection. On the other hand, persons with mesomorphic body are those with hard, muscular body, overly mature appearance and usually are in upright posture. Characteristics associated with the person with this type of body are being adventurous, courageous, assertive, bold and has love for physical activities and risks. Persons with ectomorphic bodies are physically characterized by being thin, flat-chested, tall, lightly muscled and with delicate built. Usually they are self-conscious, introvert, artistic and emotionally restrained. Dissociative Disorder Reference: www.mayoclinic.com/health/dissociative-disorders/DS00574 Dissociative   disorder is a psychiatric condition in which the person chronically escape in involuntary, unhealthy ways ranging from suppressing memories to assuming alternate identities. (Mayo Clinic, 2007). For a normal person, we tend to daydream when we watch movies, imagining we are one of the characters and enjoy the escape from reality for a short while and as the movie comes to an end we slowly get back to reality. For a person with dissociative disorder, he gets totally lost in his imaginations and has difficulty snapping out from the situations running in his mind. Treatments of this mental disorder include psychotherapy, hypnosis and medications.

Secure Payment Device using NFC

Secure Payment Device using NFC CAREER EPISODE 3 3.1 INTRODUCTION In my last semester, i.e. 8th semester, I made a project called Secure Payment Device using NFC. My last career episode is about this project. I completed this project in six months duration from Jan 2013 to May 2013. I completed my Bachelors Degree in Electronics and Communication in June 2013. I pursued this program from Guru Nanak Dev University, Gurdaspur, India. The project secure payment device using NFC was completed in a group and I was assigned the group leader. Also, it was performed under the supervision of Prof. Rana. 3.2 BACKGROUND NFC Near Field Communication, it is a wireless communication technology. NFC and mobile payments are the two fields which are gaining attention in the society lately. Mostly all mobile phone has this NFC technology, and more to come in near future. Using NFC, if the payments are made possible, it will attract more masses. The project concentrates on how this technology can be used for mobile payments. It stores the credit card or debit card number on the phone i.e. the digital money and uses NFC reader to detect the card number and send it to the server for authentication. For this purpose, I had prepared a dummy database bank system and uploaded it on the server side. 3.3 OBJECTIVES The objective behind implementing this project was to overcome the problems related to payment. People tend to forget their wallet and debit/credit card, or there occurs a problem of security if the card is lost. So, to overcome this issue I designed a NFC based payment method, which replaces the regular money cards. The users mobile system become the mode of payment transaction. This solves the issue of security also and the person always has a mode of payment in his phone. Also, NFC is the new and useful technology, which got me interested in its various forms of application. 3.4 In this device, NFC for requesting on client end and sending card number, POS (Point of Sales) Terminal for client end for receiving data and processing the transaction, Website for registration, account details etc., Web service which is used for authentication and Database for loading and saving users details are required. Various new technology and software are used in designing of this device. The POS terminal is NFC reader interfaced with Arduino, from Arduino the program code is sent to APDU commands on phone to verify the AID of the application. Eclipse software is used to write application for NFC Enabled Phone to send card number and password that is stored in the phone. Computer languages like C#, ASP.NET are used to write the code for website and webserver. And SQL is used for database technology. 3.5 The idea behind this project is that the user just touches his phone to NFC reader when the payment is need to be made, and the phone will act as the credit card or debit card that the user previously used to use. A mobile payment enabled phone is associated with the bank or the credit card company, in a similar way the phone is associated to phone service provider.ÂÂ   For my project a dummy system and bank with some random database is made to use which assigns a card number and authenticates the user the permission required at the time of payment. 3.6 The project was performed in a group, and being a group leader I had many responsibilities and duties that I had to perform perfectly and had to maintain professional rules of conduct. The duties are listed below: To start with, I had to understand the problem statement assigned to me and survey and research relevant and related topics for possible solutions. After having the solution, I mapped a work plan. Based on the work plan, I divided the whole project into small task and assigned each team member the task based on team members ability. Also, I gave a strict deadline. I involved myself in the design procedure of the block diagram for this device based on my research work. I studied and compared all the components and came up with a final set of components. Using my planned circuit diagram and the component list, I started to plot the hardware model. I learned new software for the implementation of the programming codes in my device. Testing and troubleshooting was performed. Regular reports on updates of my project was given to the project guide. 3.7 PERSONAL ENGINEERING ACTIVITY Based on my literature survey, I made a block diagram for my device. For my project, I have used Roboduino with ATmega328, which is Arduino compatible board. I chose this microcontroller due to its simplicity in programming. To display a message at the POS terminal, I used LCD and interfaced it with Arduino. The NFC reader is interfaced with Arduino in SPI mode. I have made use of PN532 NFC IC which prepares NFC reader by matching 13.56MHz frequency with the antenna. The data that is scanned by NFC reader is passed to the computer and further sent to web server for authentication. The web servers code that is written in visual studio will verify the data that is sent to the web service URL. The URL is already hosted. It will then send a notification stating the success or failure of the data and that will be displayed on the LCD. 3.8 To use this system, it involves three parties buyer, bank, and the merchant. The process involves tapping the buyers phone on the reader at the point of sales (POS). Once the AID is selected from the android side, it will return the card number and PIN to the reader. As per the ISO 7816-4 standard, these values received are transferred in HEX code. On the PC terminal, this HEX code is converted into string by serial client. The bank receives the card no and PIN for verification purpose. On receiving the reply, the LCD will display true or false and it will notify the buyer about his or her transaction. 3.9 For the function of the system, I used the following components to suit my requirement. PN532 it is a highly-integrated transmission module which is used for contactless communication at 13.56MHz and it also supports microcontroller functionality based on 80C51 core. Arduino Duemilanove, LCD 162, Resistors, Capacitors, LED, MOSFET, Inductor and Crystal With the help of these components I prepared a circuit diagram using a software called Eclipse. The readers circuit diagram differs than others because it moves from one host interface to other and the SPI interface uses MOSI. PN532 supports three modes. The interfacing is done for the LCD and NFC shield with the Roboduino. The NFC shield operates as SPI modes while interfacing, so 4 pins MOSI, MISO, SS and SCK are interfaced to the Arduino pins. 3.10 Once my hardware part was completed and the components were soldered to the PCB, I progressed my work with the development of the software part for my device. The software part was divided into two parts, one for the hardware functioning and the other part was designed to function the web application. To start with the implementation, I had to learn certain programming software, as they were new for me. The four software that are used in my device are Arduino IDE used for programming Arduino Uno board with C++ language, Microsoft Visual Studio used for developing a serial client software, web application and web service with the use of C#, Eagle is used for PCB designing and schematic layout and Eclipse to develop android applications using Java code. 3.11 For receiving data on COM port and for the verification purpose of the user, a software i.e. serial client is developed with the help of C#.Net. A random website is developed for the registration and processing the NFC payment purpose, editing details of the user, adding money etc. A tap pay app based on android is prepared for NFC shield to communicate and transfer the required card details to serial port. The serial client performs all further procedure. After the completion of the software designing, the project was run on the trial basis to check its working and for any faulty situation. Various troubleshooting and test kits were used to solve any issue in the device. All the connections were checked at the final stage to avoid short circuit situation of the PCB. 3.12 Working in teams is also a challenging situation. And as I was the group leader, I had to present the complete working model of my project on time. I coordinated with each group member. I took a fair, unbiased, and appropriate decision in the state of conflict. I took help from my seniors and project supervisor in the crises of any error or problem. There were two major issues during my project, first was working on software as coming from electronics and communication background, it was difficult and challenge to write such big codes. I took the challenge and learned all possible solutions and techniques to write the code. The second issue was I had to reconnect some of the components as while performing a trial run, the microcontroller got burnt. I took precaution while correcting the issue so that I dont make the same mistake again. 3.13 SUMMARY Therefore, after performing and developing such endless device, I have proposed a trusted and secure option for payment method which is based on NFC. It processes payment without the need of physical card, the mobile does all the work by just tapping it at the reader. Once the users details are verified, the payment is processed and executed successfully. I have kept the window open for expanding my project in future. The details can be encrypted before transferring it from the phone to the POS, thus keeping it more safe and secure. It can be used anywhere, from shopping at small shops to malls, as well as an access system for the door or for buying tickets at railway or bus stations. 3.14 The project was a big step in my bachelors degree. It involved serious knowledge and full dedication. I learned and developed new technologies and software that are related to my electronics and communication field. I used my engineering knowledge at various point during the execution and implementation of the project. I was grateful to my project guide for constantly helping me and training me to develop such device. I made a presentation and report describing the details of my project. I referenced various work of great researchers and scientist wherever needed.

The Transmission Electron Microscopy Biology Essay

The Transmission Electron Microscopy Biology Essay The transmission electron microscope operates on the same basic principles as the light microscope but uses electrons instead of light. What you can see with a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light. TEMs use electrons as light source and their much lower wavelength make it possible to get a resolution a thousand times better than with a light microscope. TEM uses a technique whereby a beam of electrons is transmitted through an ultra-thin specimen, interacting with the specimen as it passes through. An image is formed from the interaction of the electrons transmitted through the specimen; the image is magnified and focused onto an imaging device, such as a fluorescent screen, on a layer of photographic film, or to be detected by a sensor such as a CCD camera. TEMs are capable of imaging at a significantly higher resolution than light microscopes, owing to the small de Broglie wavelength of electrons. This enables the instruments user to examine fine detail-even as small as a single column of atoms, which is tens of thousands times smaller than the smallest resolvable object in a light microscope. TEM forms a major analysis method in a range of scientific fields, in both physical and biological sciences. TEMs find application in cancer research, virology, materials science as well as pollution, nanotechnology, and semiconductor research. History of TEMs The first operational electron microscope was presented by Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll in 1932, and 6 years later Ruska had a first version on the market. In 1986 Ruska received a Nobel Prize in physics for his fundamental work in electron optics and for the design of the first electron microscope. The following table gives a basic outline of the history of the electron microscope by decades. Year Specimens Application/development Instrumentation/theory Resolution 1940s Replicas oxide carbon plastics surfaces slip steps extracted particles fractography -50kV, single condenser -little or no theory; a first basic theory of electron microscopy was published in 1949 by Heidenreich. ~10nm 1950s Thin foils: from bulk deposited defects phase transitions -100kV -contrast theory developed. ~0.5-2nm 1960s metals semiconductors ceramics minerals Dynamic in-situ studies substructure of solids radiation damage microdiffraction -high voltage electron microscopes (Toulouse: 1.2 and 3MeV) -scanning electron microscopes -accessories for in-situ studies -controlled experiments 0.3nm (transmission) ~15-20nm (scanning) 1970s catalysts quasicrystals High resolution imaging lattice imaging -Analytical transmission electron microscopy -scanning transmission electron microscopy -energy dispersive x-ray spectra -electron energy loss spectroscopy -commercial high voltage electron microscopy (0.4-1.5MeV) -high resolution imaging theory 0.2nm (transmission) 7nm (standard scanning) 1980s virtually all materials atomic resolution in close-packed solids surface imaging small particles -commercial medium-voltage high-resolution/analytical electron microscopy (300-400kV) -improved analytical capabilities -energy filtering imaging -ultra-high vacuum microscopes 0.15nm (transmission) 5nm (scanning at 1kV) 1990s fast computation for image simulation alloy design nanostructures integrated digital scanning and image processing -surface atomic microscopy -orientation imaging microscopy 0.1nm (transmission) 3nm (scanning at 1kV) 2000s Electron microscopy in the 1960s In 1969 RCA dropped out of the electron microscope business, having decided that they could make more money selling record albums and consumer electronic devices.   General Electric had never become a major power in the electron microscope business. This left the field wide open for companies such as JEOL, Hitachi, and Akashi in Japan, and Philips, Siemens, and Zeiss in Europe. The resolution of the best TEMs was now approximately 0.3 nm (3 Ã…); JEOL claimed a resolution of 0.2 nm (2 Ã…) for its 1968 model JEM-100B. Accelerating voltages were still typically in the 100 kV range, although JEOL marketed a 200 kV instrument in 1967 called the JEM-200. Philips marketed a very popular 100 kV microscope called the EM 300 in 1966. They claimed that this was the first fully-transistorized electron microscope, and that it could attain a point resolution of 0.5 nm (5 Ã…). More than 1,850 units of the EM 300 were sold. Another approach to the study of materials that emerged in the 1960s involved increasing the accelerating voltage of the electron gun to extreme levels up to 3 MeV in an effort to penetrate more deeply into thicker samples. CEMES-LOE/CNRS at Toulouse, France, developed a 3MeV instrument around 1965, followed closely by JEOL, which released a 1 MeV microscope, the JEM-1000, in 1966. (One MeV represents a million electron volts, while one kV is a thousand electron volts. So 1,000 kV= 1 MeV.) These ultrahigh voltage EMs were so large that they typically occupied their own two-story building. The electron gun and its associated high voltage electronics were located near the ceiling of the second story, while the operator sat at the bottom of the microscope column looking at the fluorescent screen. Hitachis 1964 model HU-500 stood 4 meters tall; later, higher MeV versions eventually made this look small. On the left is a photograph of the 1 MeV Atomic Resolution Microscope (ARM) at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Electron microscopy in the 1970s The 1970s were a time of rapid development on all fronts in the electron microscope industry. Further improvements in TEM came from brighter electron sources (lanthanum hexaboride and field emission guns). The resolution of the TEM was pushed to 0.2 nm (2 Ã…) in the 1970s, with better results reported in some cases for lattice imaging resolutions; Hitachi claimed a 1.4 Ã… lattice resolution for its 1975 model H-500 TEM, and JEOL claimed the same resolution for its 1973 model JEM-100C. Accelerating voltages of 100 kV maximum had become the norm. In contrast to the low cost instruments, Philips 1972 model EM 301 TEM was designed for high performance and versatility for the skilled operator who had the time to coax the best results from his instrument. The EM 400 introduced in 1975 used a LAB6 electron gun, which was ten times as bright as the standard tungsten filament at the time. On the down side, the reactivity of lanthanum hexaboride required an ultra-clean vacuum system of 10-6 Torr. In 1977 Philips introduced accessories for the EM 400, including a secondary electron detector for topographical studies and a field emission gun (FEG) a single crystal tungsten tipped filament that emits electrons from a very localized region of the tip to produce narrow, bright electron beams. FEGs can have100 to 1,000 times the brightness of a LAB6 filament, with electron beam diameters as small as 1 nm. Vacuum requirements for these FEGs are 10-10 Torr. JEOL started with the JEM-100B Analytical model in 1970, which added scanning ability and an EDX x-ray spectrometer to the TEM. This was improved upon by the JEM-100C in 1973, with its 1.4 Ã… resolution, and further upgraded by the JEM-100CX Analytical model in 1976, which added an ultraclean vacuum system and a LAB6 electron gun. In the ultrahigh voltage EM market, The Hitachi 3MeV HU-3000 was installed at Osaka University in 1970. This accelerating voltage was the highest ever for an electron microscope. A resolution of 4.6 Ã… was reported for this instrument. The 1976 model H-1250 had a maximum voltage of 1250 kV, but a superior resolution of 2.04 Ã…. Electron microscopy in the 1980s During the 1980s TEM resolutions were further reduced to 1.0 to 1.5Ã…, making imaging of atoms in lattice planes possible. Microprocessor control of microscopes and computerized analysis of data became common due to the emergence of the personal computer in the early 80s. This microprocessor control brought about such features as an auto-stigmator and auto-focus, freeing the microscope operator from the mundane tasks that had always been involved in using the instrument. Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) detectors were incorporated in STEMs and AEMs, allowing detection of low atomic number elements that could not be seen using x-ray techniques. The demands of the fast-growing integrated circuits industry produced electron microscopes designed for non-destructive testing of semiconductor wafers and for functional testing of ICs. Smaller electron beam sizes made it possible to switch from microprobe to nanoprobe technology. Elemental mapping of a samples surface could now be done on a nanometer level. Development of low cost instruments was not a priority in the 1980s. Some that were developed in the 1970s continued to be sold, but development was focused on high-performance, high-resolution, microprocessor-controlled instruments. JEOL produced 7 new TEM units between 1980 and 1986. These included the JEM-1200 EX (1981), which added microprocessor control to the JEM-100 CX (1976). The same model equipped with an EDS x-ray spectrometer was called the JEM-1200 EX/Analytical microscope. The 1984 model JEM-2000 FX/Analytical had a maximum voltage of 200 kV and a resolution of 2.8 Ã…; this instrument marked the switch from a microprobe beam to a nanoprobe. The JEM-4000 FX/Analytical microscope introduced in 1986 raised the acceleration voltage to 400 kV, which produced a beam probe size only 2 nm in diameter. After years of a standard 100 kV accelerating voltage with a few ultrahigh voltage units thrown in, these medium-voltage microscopes finally became popular. Electron microscopy in the 1990s The 1990s produced several corporate mergers in the electron microscope industry. Carl Zeiss and Leica joined to form LEO Electron Microscopy, Inc. In 1996 Philips bought Electroscan, the developer of the environmental SEM in the 1980s, to form Philips Electroscan. The following year Philips Electron Optics and a company called FEI merged under the name FEI to continue manufacturing electron microscopes. Hitachi and JEOL remained independent entities. The resolution of TEMs had already reached its theoretical limit (the best possible resolution predicted by calculations), so the 1Ã… resolution obtained using field emission gun (FEG) electron sources remained the standard. Medium voltage range instruments up to 300 kV were common, although 100 kV instruments still kept their long lasting popularity. Computers were now a vital part of every electron microscope, with graphical user interfaces (GUIs) being the norm. They were involved in both the control of the instrument and the processing of data, including post-analysis enhancement of micrographs using contrast-enhancing software. JEOL offered TEMs with maximum accelerating voltages of 120, 200, and 300 kV. The 120 kV model JEM1230 had a resolution of 0.2 nm (2Ã…). The JEM-2010 F FasTEM (200 kV) and the JEM-3000 F FasTEM (300 kV) both used FEG sources and achieved resolutions of 0.1 nm (1.0 Ã…). Three meetings of the Electron Microscopy Society of America (1968, 1975, and 1980) The Electron Microscopy Society of America (now known as the Microscopy Society of America) was founded in 1942, when it began holding annual meetings for instrument makers and users to gather and discuss the technology and its applications. The topics of papers given at these meetings present a snapshot of the state of electron microscopy at the time. A brief look at three of these meetings shows the evolution of the technology and its applications over a 12-year period. In the brief twelve-year span of 1968 to 1980, the physical sciences overtook the biological sciences at EMSA meetings, judging solely on number of papers presented. A large part of this development is probably due to the emergence of the scanning electron microscope in 1965, which made examination of the surface of bulk specimens possible for the first time. Since physical scientists could now look at real samples instead of replicas or thin films, activity in microscopy of materials increased dramatically. With no similar dramatic development in biological microscopy, the balance shifted. The Science of TEMs Comparison of Light (LM) and Electron Microscopes. a. Similarities 1) Illumination system: produces required radiation and directs it onto the specimen. Consists of a source, which emits the radiation, and a condenser lens, which focuses the illuminating beam (allowing variations of intensity to be made) on the specimen. 2) Specimen stage: situated between the illumination and imaging systems. 3) Imaging system: Lenses which together produce the final magnified image of the specimen. Consists of i) an objective lens which focuses the beam after it passes through the specimen and forms an intermediate image of the specimen and ii) the projector lens(es) which magnifies a portion of the intermediate image to form the final image. 4) Image recording system: Converts the radiation into a permanent image (typically on a photographic emulsion) that can be viewed. b. Differences 1) Optical lenses are generally made of glass with fixed focal lengths whereas magnetic lenses are constructed with ferromagnetic materials and windings of copper wire producing a focal length which can be changed by varying the current through the coil. 2) Magnification in the LM is generally changed by switching between different power objective lenses mounted on a rotating turret above the specimen. It can also be changed if oculars (eyepieces) of different power are used. In the TEM the magnification (focal length) of the objective remains fixed while the focal length of the projector lens is changed to vary magnification. 3) The LM has a small depth of field, thus different focal levels can be seen in the specimen. The large (relative) depth of field in the TEM means that the entire (thin) specimen is in focus simultaneously. 4) Mechanisms of image formation vary (phase and amplitude contrast). 5) TEMs are generally constructed with the radiation source at the top of the instrument: the source is generally situated at the bottom of LMs. 6) TEM is operated at high vacuum (since the mean free path of electrons in air is very small) so most specimens (biological) must be dehydrated. 7) TEM specimens (biological) are rapidly damaged by the electron beam. 8) TEMs can achieve higher magnification and better resolution than LMs. 9) Price tag!!! (100x more than LM) Figure below shows the cross-sectional view of a standard TEM. Figure shows the transmission electron microscope at The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Figure shows a schematic outline of a TEM. A TEM contains four parts: electron source, electromagnetic lens system, sample holder, and imaging system. A. Electron Source The electron gun produces a beam of electrons whose kinetic energy is high enough to enable them to pass through thin areas of the TEM specimen. The gun consists of an electron source, also known as the cathode because it is at a high negative potential, and an electron-accelerating chamber. There are several types of electron source, operating on different physical principles, which we now discuss. i. Thermionic Emission Figure 3-1 shows a common form of electron gun. The electron source is a V-shaped (hairpin) filament made of tungsten (W) wire, spot-welded to straight-wire leads that are mounted in a ceramic or glass socket, allowing the filament assembly to be exchanged easily when the filament eventually burns out. A direct (dc) current heats the filament to about 2700 K, at which temperature tungsten emits electrons into the surrounding vacuum by the process known as thermionic emission. Figure 3-1. Thermionic electron gun containing a tungsten filament F, Wehnelt electrode W, ceramic high-voltage insulator C, and o-ring seal O to the lower part of the TEM column. An autobias resistor, RB (actually located inside the high-voltage generator, as in Fig. 3-6) is used to generate a potential difference between W and F; thereby controlling the electron-emission current, Ie. Arrows denote the direction of electron flow that gives rise to the emission current. Raising the temperature of the cathode causes the nuclei of its atoms to vibrate with increased amplitude. Because the conduction electrons are in thermodynamic equilibrium with the atoms, they share this thermal energy, and a small proportion of them achieve energies above the vacuum level, enabling them to escape across the metal/vacuum interface. The rate of electron emission can be represented as a current density Je(in A/m2) at the cathode surface, which is given by the Richardson law: Where T is the absolute temperature (in K) of the cathode and A is the Richardson constant (~106Am-2K-2), which depends to some degree on the cathode material but not on its temperature; k is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23J/K), and kT is approximately the mean thermal energy of an atom. ii. Schottky emission The thermionic emission of electrons can be increased by applying an electrostatic field to the cathode surface. This field lowers the height of the potential barrier (which keeps electrons inside the cathode) by an amount, the so-called Schottky effect. A Schottky source consists of a pointed crystal of tungsten welded to the end of V-shaped tungsten filament. The tip is coated with zirconium oxide (ZrO) to provide a low work function (~2.8 eV) and needs to be heated to only about 1800 K to provide adequate electron emission. Because the tip is very sharp, electrons are emitted from a very small area, resulting in a relatively high current density ( Je ~ 107A/m2) at the surface. Because the ZrO is easily poisoned by ambient gases, the Schottky source requires a vacuum substantially better than that of a LaB6 source. iii. Field emission If the electrostatic field at a tip of a cathode is increased sufficiently, the width (horizontal in Fig.3-4) of the potential barrier becomes small enough to allow electrons to escape through the surface potential barrier by quantum-mechanical tunneling, a process known as field emission. The probability of electron tunneling becomes high when the barrier width, w is comparable to de Broglie wavelength of the electron. This wavelength is related to the electron momentum p by p=h/ÃŽÂ » where h= 6.63 x 10-34 Js is the Planck constant. Because the barrier width is smallest for electrons at the top of the conduction band, they are the ones most likely to escape. Because thermal excitation is not required, a field-emission tip can operate at room temperature, and the process is sometimes called cold field emission. As there is no evaporation of tungsten during normal operation, the tip can last for many months or even years before replacement. It is heated (flashed) from time to time to remove adsorbed gases, which affect the work function and cause the emission current to be unstable. Even so, cold field emission requires ultra-high vacuum (UHV: pressure ~ 10-8 Pa) to achieve stable operation, requiring an elaborate vacuum system and resulting in substantially greater cost of the instrument. B. Electromagnetic Lens System The TEM may be required to produce a highly magnified (e.g, M = 105) image of a specimen on a fluorescent screen, of diameter typically 15 cm. To ensure that the screen image is not too dim, most of the electrons that pass through the specimen should fall within this diameter, which is equivalent to a diameter of (15 cm)/M = 1.5  µm at the specimen. For viewing larger areas of specimen, however, the final-image magnification might need to be as low as 2000, requiring an illumination diameter of 75  µm at the specimen. In order to achieve the required flexibility, the condenser-lens system must contain at least two electron lenses. The first condenser (C1) lens is a strong magnetic lens, with a focal length f that may be as small as 2 mm. Using the virtual electron source(diameter ds) as its object, C1 produces areal image of diameter d1. Because the lens is located 20 cm or more below the object, the object distance, u ~ 20 cm >> f and so the image distance v ~ f. The second condenser (C2) lens is a weak magnetic lens ( f ~ several centimeters) that provides little or no magnification (M ~ 1) but allows the diameter of illumination (d) at the specimen to be varied continuously over a wide range. The C2 lens also contains the condenser aperture (the hole in the condenser diaphragm) whose diameter D can be changed in order to control the convergence semi-angle of the illumination, the maximum angle by which the incident electrons deviate from the optic axis. Figure shows lens action within the accelerating field of an electron gun, between the electron source and the anode. Curvature of the equipotential surfaces around the hole in the Wehnelt electrode constitutes a converging electrostatic lens (equivalent to a convex lens in light optics), whereas the non-uniform field just above the aperture in the anode creates a diverging lens (the equivalent of a concave lens in light optics). C. Sample Holder To allow observation in different brands or models of microscope, TEM specimens are always made circular with a diameter of 3 mm. Perpendicular to this disk, the specimen must be thin enough (at least in some regions) to allow electrons to be transmitted to form the magnified image. The specimen stage is designed to hold the specimen as stationary as possible, as any drift or vibration would be magnified in the final image, impairing its spatial resolution (especially if the image is recorded by a camera over a period of several seconds). But in order to view all possible regions of the specimen, it is also necessary to move the specimen horizontally over a distance of up to3 mm if necessary. The design of the stage must also allow the specimen to be inserted into the vacuum of the TEM column without introducing air. This is achieved by inserting the specimen through an airlock, a small chamber into which the specimen is placed initially and which can be evacuated before the specimen enters the TEM column. Not surprisingly, the specimen stage and airlock are the most mechanically complex and precision-machined parts of the TEM. There are two basic designs of the specimen stage: side-entry and top-entry. In a side-entry stage, the specimen is clamped (for example, by a threaded ring) close to the end of a rod-shaped specimen holder and is inserted horizontally through the airlock. The airlock-evacuation valve and a high-vacuum valve (at the entrance to the TEM column) are activated by rotation of the specimen holder about its long axis; see figure (a). One advantage of this side-entry design is that it is easy to arrange for precision motion of the specimen. Translation in the horizontal plane (x and y directions) and in the vertical (z) direction is often achieved by applying the appropriate movement to an end-stop that makes contact with the pointed end of the specimen holder. A further advantage of the side-entry stage is that heating of a specimen is easy to arrange, by installing a small heater at the end of the specimen holder, with electrical leads running along the inside of the holder to a power supply located outside the TEM. The ability to change the temperature of a specimen allows structural changes in a material (such as phase transitions)to be studied at the microscopic level. Specimen cooling can also be achieved, by incorporating (inside the side-entry holder) a heat-conducting metal rod whose outer end is immersed in liquid nitrogen (at 77 K). One disadvantage of the side-entry design is that mechanical vibration  picked up from the TEM column or from acoustical vibrations in the external air, is transmitted directly to the specimen. In addition, any thermal expansion of the specimen holder can cause drift of the specimen and of the TEM image. These problems have been largely overcome by careful design, including choice of materials used to construct the specimen holder. As a result, side-entry holders are widely used, even for high-resolution imaging. In a top-entry stage, the specimen is clamped to the bottom end of a cylindrical holder that is equipped with a conical collar; see Figure (b). The holder is loaded into position through an airlock by means of a sliding and tilting arm, which is then detached and retracted. Inside the TEM, the cone of the specimen holder fits snugly into a conical well of the specimen stage, which can be translated in the (x and y) horizontal directions by a precision gear mechanism. The major advantage of a top-entry design is that the loading arm is disengaged after the specimen is loaded, so the specimen holder is less liable to pick up vibrations from the TEM environment. In addition, its axially symmetric design tends to ensure that any thermal expansion occurs radially about the optic axis and therefore becomes small close to the axis. However, in disadvantage views, it is more difficult to provide tilting, heating, or cooling of the specimen. Although such facilities have all been implemented in top-entry stages, they require elaborate precision engineering, making the holder fragile and expensive. Because the specimen is held at the bottom of its holder, it is difficult to collect more than a small fraction of the x-rays that are generated  by the transmitted beam and emitted in the upward direction, making this design less attractive for high-sensitivity elemental analysis. D. Imaging System The sample is placed in front of the objective lens in a form of thin foil, thin section or fine particles transparent for the electron beam. (Figure. 3). The objective lens forms an image of the electron density distribution at the exit surface of the specimen based on the electron optical principles. The diffraction, projection and intermediate lenses below the objective lens are used to focus and magnify either the diffraction pattern or the image onto a fluorescent screen, which converts the electrons into visible light signal. There are three important mechanisms, which produce image contrast in the electron microscope: mass-thickness contrast, phase contrast and diffraction or amplitude contrast. i. Mass-thickness contrast arises from incoherent elastic scattering of electrons. As electrons go through the specimen they are scattered off axis by elastic nuclear interaction also called Rutherford scattering. The cross section for elastic scattering is a function of the atomic number (Z). As the thickness of the specimen increases the elastic scattering also increases since the mean-free path remains fixed. Also specimens consisting of higher Z elements will scatter more electrons than low-Z specimens. This will create differential intensity in an image formed from thicker regions where fewer electrons will be transmitted to the image compared to a thinner or low atomic number region, which will be brighter in the image plane. In TEM, the mass-thickness contrast is affected by the size of the objective aperture and the accelerating voltage. Smaller apertures will increase the difference in the ratio of scattered and transmitted electrons and as a consequence will increase the contrast between regions of different thickness of mass. Lowering the accelerating voltage will lead to similar effect since the scattering angle and the cross section increase which also will cause increase in the relative contrast between higher mass and lower mass regions. ii. Phase contrast. Some of the electrons leaving the specimen are recombined to form the image so that phase differences present at the exit surface of the specimen are converted into intensity differences in the image. Phase contrast is the dominant mechanism for object detail iii. Diffraction contrast. Diffracted electrons leaving the lower surface of a crystalline specimen are intercepted by the objective aperture and prevented from contributing to the image. Alternatively only one diffracted beam forms the image. Diffraction contrast is the dominant mechanism delineating object detail >15 Ã… in crystalline specimens and is important and widely used contrast mechanism for study of crystal defects. Using this approach considerable quantitative information about the defect structure of the specimen may be obtained without operating the microscope at maximum resolution. Vacuum System Electron microscopes cannot operate in air for a number of reasons. The penetration of electrons through air is typically no more than 1 meter, so after coming on meter from the gun, the whole beam would be lost to collisions of the electrons with the air molecules. It is also not possible to generate the high charge difference between the anode and cathode in the gun because air is not a perfect insulator. Finally, the beam on the specimen while in air would trap all sorts of rubbish (air is full of hydrocarbon molecules) on the specimen, crack them (removing hydrogen, oxygen, etc.) and thus leave a thick carbon contamination layer on the specimen. Each electron microscope therefore has a vacuum system. The degree of sophistication of the vacuum system depends on the requirements. Simple imaging of biological thin sections is much less demanding than cryo applications or small-probe analysis in materials science and a thermionic gun can operate under much worse vacuum than a Field E mission Gun (FEG). The most basic vacuum system consists of a vessel connected to a pump that removes the air. The vacuum system of an electron microscope is considerably more complicated, containing a number of vessels, pumps, valves (to separate different vessels) and gauges (to measure vacuum pressures). From the bottom up we can distinguish four vessels in the vacuum system: The buffer tank The projection chamber The column (specimen area) The electron gun area Sometimes a tubomolecular pump (TMP), essentially a high-speed turbine fan, is used in place of (or to supplement) a diffusion pump. Usually an ion pump is used to achieve pressures below 10-4Pa, as required to operate a LaB6, Schottky, or field-emission electron source. By applying a potential difference of several kilovolts between large electrodes, a low-pressure discharge is set up (aided by the presence of a magnetic field) which removes gas molecules by burying them in one of the electrodes. Figure shows cross section through a diffusion pump. The arrows show oil vapor leaving jets within the baffle assembly. Water flowing within a coiled metal tube keeps the walls cool. Frequently, liquid nitrogen is used to help in achieving adequate vacuum inside the TEM, through a process known as cryo

The Targeting strategy :: Business and Management Studies

The Targeting strategy Data strategy paper The business that I am going to examine is a typical business to consumer type dealing with music related product sales and distribution directly to customers (direct sell). All music is an e-commerce site that provides a large inventory of musical genres. It has a user friendly search engine to explore the huge music database of the site. It provides advanced searching methods that help the user to explore the database according to mood, genre, song and album title. All music provides moreover to the user an extra service that can give him/her the opportunity to become a registered member of the site (free) in order to gain specific information concerning: special prices, offers, music information according to his/her preferences, advanced search, expanded artist information (credits, songs), editorial features as well as the ability to listen audio samples (30 second duration) before purchasing the record. Moreover it uses a 5 star album rating system with 5 being the best rating in order to assist the customer about the specific release. Target Group The Targeting strategy that All music utilizes is based on market segmentation in order to collect and manipulate current and prospective buyers into groups (segments) that have common needs and will respond similarly to a marketing action. Our target group comprised on:  · Age Primarily males and females aged 18-30 years  · Lifestyle Customers that like to purchase musical products such as cd-albums, t-shirts, music accessories as well as musical concerts. * Location Living in Western Europe and America and can be able to perform credit card transactions. The main reason that All music focus more on those areas is due to the fact that the specific customers (from statistical information): 1) Perform on-line transactions via credit card on a daily basis(have proper knowledge of the internet technology) 2) Affluent target groups that are affordable to pay for music downloads and cd-purchases charged by record labels via the internet. Data element The data that should be maintained in the specific marketing database should be: * Customer ID  · Customer name * Country * Customer gender * Customer age * Occupation * Customer marital status * Customer address * Customer telephone(or cell phone) * Customer email * Customer search history * Financial information  · Preferred genre  · Prospect customer Source(where will All music get the data sources?) All music should use information concerning the data sources both external and internal. Examining the external data all music will get the data elements with the use of a combined approach of compiled and response data in order to identify the source of information. To be more specific through compiled data All music will collect from

Nelson Mandelas Long Walk To Freedom Essay -- Nelson Mandela Long Wal

Nelson Mandela in his book, Long Walk to Freedom argues through the first five parts that a black individual must deal, coop, and grow through a society that is hindering their lives' with apartheid and suppression of their rightful land. Rolihlanla Mphakanyiswa or clan name, Madiba was born on July 18, 1918 in a simple village of Mvezo, which was not accustomed to the happenings of South Africa as a whole. His father was an respected man who led a good life, but lost it because of a dispute with the magistrate. While, his mother was a hard-working woman full of daily choirs. His childhood was full of playing games with fellow children and having fun. In school, Mandela was given his English name of Nelson. After his father's death, he moved to love with a regent, who was a well-off individual and owed Nelson's father for a previous favor. The next several years were full of schooling for Nelson. These schools opened Nelson's eyes to many things, which we will discuss later. He and t he regent's son, Justice decided to travel to Johannesburg and see what work they could find. They left on their journey without the regent's permission, but eventually escaped his power and settled down in the town. In Johannesburg, Nelson settled down in a law firm as an assistant and went to University of South Africa and Witwatersrand University to further his law education. Witswatersrand University brought many new ideas to Nelson and awakened a spirit inside of him. The next several years, Nelson met many new political friends and began his involvement in the ANC. Also during this time, he met Evelyn and they became married. Gradually Nelson's political involvement grew and his family life declined. Nelson and his good friend, Oliver Tambo opened a law firm, which took up most of Nelson's time. Evelyn mothered two of Nelson's children, but the gradually grew apart. Now, Nelson was an influential political individual and bans and jailing began to follow him around. One day, a young woman came into his life by the name of Winnie and they got married. Winnie gave birth to two more of Nelson's children. As time passed, Nelson's spirit for freedom grew more and more each day. Though his life was full of bannings and jailings, he never gave up his fight, but he knew that the south African government was becoming agitated with him and the ANC. The South African government became ... ...eid of white supremacy in South Africa. Throughout the book, I have seen Nelson's open-mindedness. Nelson always listened to communist ideas and Indian goals, eventhough he did not agree with them. Nelson faced many hardships through his struggle and this had to cause some resentment against his oppressors. But if anyone would not be bias in his writing, I would say it would be Nelson Mandela. He has showed in his book that he is great individual and that he will not let his past feeling cloud his writing. You can see his feelings in his book and that is what makes it so good, but I believe he does not hide anything from us on both sides of the stories.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, Mandela's autobiography is a brilliant book written by an incredible individual. I wish I could of read the whole book for this essay, but that was not possible. It is hard to write an essay on the first 5 parts when I know some things that happened further in the book. I did not know if I should include that information in the essay, but I did not involve it. This book helped to show the other side of the story. We always hear the victor's story and in this class we got to hear the other side of the story.

Braveheart Movie Summary :: essays research papers

In 1280 A.D. Edward I of England, known as "Longshanks," has occupied much of Scotland, and his oppressive rule there leads to the deaths of William Wallace's father and brother. Years later and after Wallace has grown up with his uncle outside of Scotland, the Scots continue to live under the harsh thumb of Longshanks' cruel laws. Wallace returns, intent on living as a farmer and avoiding involvement in the ongoing "Troubles." Wallace rekindles a romance with his childhood friend Murron after showing her the carefully preserved thistle she gave him as a child, and the two marry in secret to avoid the primae noctis decree the King has set forth. After Wallace beats up a group of English soldiers attempting to rape Murron, the village Sheriff publicly cuts her throat before Wallace is able to save her. An enraged Wallace, with the assistance of his fellow townsmen, slaughters the English soldiers at the encampment, killing the sheriff in the same manner that Murron was killed. He then orders the burning of the local English fort, and unintentionally kindles a Scottish rebellion. News of the rebellion spreads quickly, and hundreds of Scots from the surrounding clans volunteer to join Wallace's militia. Wallace leads his army through a series of successful battles against the English, including the Battle of Stirling and sacking the city of York. However, he is betrayed by the Scottish nobility and defeated at the Battle of Falkirk. He goes into hiding, fighting a guerrilla war against English forces and personally executes two Scottish nobles who betrayed him. Meanwhile, Princess Isabelle, whose husband Prince Edward (Longshanks's effeminate son and heir) ignores her, meets with Wallace as the English King's emissary. She and Wallace share a tryst, during which she conceives Wallace's child. Still believing there is some good in the nobility of his country, Wallace eventually agrees to meet with the Bruce. He is caught in a trap set by the elder Bruce and the other nobles, beaten unconscious, and handed over to the English Crown. Robert the Bruce is enraged b y his father's treachery, and disowns him forever. In London, Wallace is brought before the English magistrates and tried for high treason. He denies the charges, reasoning that he had never accepted Edward as his King. The court responds by sentencing him to be "purified by pain." Later, in a London square, William Wallace is brutally tortured to death, being alternately hanged, racked, and finally disembowelled alive.

Agree or Disagree: Your Job Has Greater Happiness Than Your Social Life Essay

Society changes at an unprecedented speed. So does people’s views toward their jobs. This has aroused a heated discussion whether people’s jobs own more happiness than their social life dose. From my point of view, compared with working, my social life means more. To begin with, admittedly, there exist some people who relish their job and consider it whole part of their life. For instance, an honorable professor in my university spends all his lifetime with his students and colleagues. He poses all his heart to the studying field of Chinese film. Only by referring to this concerned field, can he have the eyes lustrous. Without any other social activities, he lives a very satisfying life. However, it literally differs person to person. As for me, job is merely one aspect of my life. True, it provides the opportunity to enlarge my vision on profuse communicating methods and help me be seemingly mature. But the vision is limited to certain fields, knowledges without any connections with job still stay in an uncultivated state, such as skills of veraciously making friends, spirits of exploring new areas, kindness to others and so on. Lacking these crucial elements, I wonder whether it can be a happy life. Perhaps even more significantly, social life can help maintain a good health status. People could select a multitude of activities which make benefits for their physical health. For people like me, I play tennis every weekend, resulting in that I have not caught a cold for almost three years. And this offers the requisite basic of a happy life. In addition, social life also could be make advantages of by diverting concentration then assuage spiritual pressure. We could travel and spot various scenery with diverse people, make fun of different circles of friends, experience other’s lifestyles, explore deeper information of beloved fields. In sum, social life could better life quality and life contentment due to many reasons discussed above. Therefore, not only working, but also combining social life, life could be more variegated.

Disaster Management in Pakistan

On twenty-sixth October this year, thirty six trap Chilean mine workers were rescued by bore a deep hole into the mine. A month later, twenty nine mine workers in Newzeland died after re primary(prenominal)ing trapped for days in a mine. unforesightful incident vigilance cost uncommon lives. In Pakistan, too, hap perplexity is non up to the mark. Be it the devastating earthquake, the ruinous floods, the bulgebreak of dissolves or the slipstream of flunk blasts, the focussing was very deplorable.Certain measures interchangeable bailiwick incident Management Authority (NDMA), barbarian Disaster Management Authority (PDMA), and save 1122 were taken simply n wholeness has borne product moreover. Lack of gold, scarcity of men and machinery, drop of aw atomic number 18ness and prep bedness of general macrocosm, disenfranchised demography, negative employment of media, and delocalization of mishap way centers has added to the calamity of misfortunes. A realis tic approach, straight-laced instruct to workers and public, localization of contingency way centers, public awareness programs and positive piece of media mustinessiness(prenominal) be ensured for the proper hap management in Pakistan.Until now nearly every disaster has mop up Pakistan but the required response is attached to none. The October, 2008 earthquake in Northern areas of Pakistan is a menacing reminder of the scale of disaster. Al close 80 thousand mint died and umpteen towns devastated. Though, no single regime with limited resources nookie pull off with such a calamity, yet our disposal activitys response was more than late in the hard hit areas. Timely and efficient response could energise saved many lives.The recent floods of July-August take aim also seen the demonstration of poor disaster management in our acres. Though, no country is prepared for such devastating floods, our governments response could be over a great negociate better. I nstead of helping the heap in the affected areas, our government set any their attention in appealing for aid to otherwise countries and arranging conferences for the donor countries. The fire management is also much poor. fewer months ago when fire broke step to the fore in a female inn in Rawalpindi, the management did not fork over the ecessary tools to bring the situation under control. Moreover, the aftermath of bomb blasts also shows that our country is not prepared to cope with the disaster-like situation. One of the main ca enforce of this pathetic situation of our disaster management is that the workers are not properly trained to cope with any disasters. In other countries, proper training is provided to the workers in one field to cope with that ill-tempered disaster. Unfortunately in Pakistan, the same workers are hired for every disaster to cope with.Most of our disaster management organizations are not provided with comfortable staff and machinery. The worke rs are much less as compared to the scale of the disaster. Also, the workers do not have all the needed equipments to acquire a disaster. Moreover, the facilities like fasting transport to the disaster point are also lacking. Our uneven demography also plays a big hurdle in efficient disaster management. Sometimes, the areas hit by a disaster are out of reach, thus, badly affecting the rescue activities. ponderous demography also adds to the scale of a disaster.Even a minor disaster results into a bigger loss of life and holding because of the demography of our country. This was observed in the recent floods whose originating point was the northern areas and brought devastations in other parts of the country. Delocalization of disaster management units is other cause of poor disaster management in Pakistan. All the units are controlled from the national or provincial capitals which may deform a hurdle in traffic with a disaster in time. unknowing and unpreparedness of the g eneral public is also one of the reason for poor disaster management.Our people do not know how to hand out with a disaster when they are caught with. People, sometimes, use methods which may increase the scale of a disaster instead of controlling it. Also, most of the people are unprepared to deal with a sudden disaster which results into many losses. Lack of funds with the disaster management units is also a case of poor dealing with a disaster. The disaster management organizations do not have sufficient funds to buy the machinery necessary to deal with a disaster.In order to deal effectively with any disaster in Pakistan, the government must provide proper training to workers. This is how they can deal with a disaster professionally. Moreover, the government should confer proper funds to disaster management units. All the disaster management units must be delocalized. Disaster management unit in Chitral must not be monitored from Islamabad or Peshawar. A local management pers onate can effectively deal with a local disaster. Public training programs must be initiated so that the general public is aware how to deal with a disaster.The youths must be trained in special areas of disasters, like fire, flood, so that that can be called whenever such disaster emerges. Moreover, special idiot box programs should be aired to aware the people how to deal with a disaster effectively. Disaster management plays a big role in a country like Pakistan where disasters are most frequent. Though, in the past much attention was not given to disaster management in the country, the government must implement the above mentioned suggestions in latter and spirit to cope good with any disaster in future.

Realism In International Affairs Essay

Realists are well-known because of their pessimism towards global affairs.This theory can be regarded as a prescription to be followed by politicians and states or as a description of current affairs of the state or politician pursuing self-interest. Realism in politics is often defined as a principle of power supremacy, and it has a long history since the ancient times. It was reflected in Peloponnesian War by Thucydides. This theory was also touched by Machiavelli in his writing The Prince, as well as by other outstanding philosophers like Spinoza, Hobbes and Rousseau.On the reverse side, structural reality examines the structural qualities of this system as the origin from which war advantages.(Ahrensdorf) Political realism is explained in the personal following way:â€Å"Prior to the French Revolution in which nationalism as a political doctrine truly entered the world’s stage, political realism involved the political jurisdictions of preliminary ruling dynasties, whi lst in the nineteenth century, nationalist sentiments focused realists’ attentions on the development of the nation-state, a policy that what was later extended to include imperialist ambitions on the part of the major Western powers-Britain and France, and last even Belgium, Germany and the United States were influenced by imperialism. † (Viotti, Kauppi).Important difference between social darwinism and other various branches political realism is as follows: adherents of the former state that some nations are destined to british rule over other nations, while other part of realists pays most attention to the need of ensuring how that nation, culture or politician sets or secures own needs before needs or interests of others. Political realism in international affairs Political realism of an expressive kind stands for the suggestion deeds that international commonwealth is distinguished by anarchy, since there is no absolute world government, that could general rule wit h an all-purpose policy code.

Its normal that realism is not really realistic.17, ‘Of Commonwealth, cited in Griffiths, O’Callaghan). Respectively, without any supreme international force, nations treat each other with hostility or fear, and it damages the system. Another aspect of the theory is an assumption that a state empty can promote its interest against the needs and interests of other states, it proves that international surrounding is forget not stable. Any order is affected if states compete for the same need, and under such circumstances, as the realists state, the nation may rely on itself only.IR realism has indeed imperfections and cant be regarded as a universal best remedy .† (Stern) The assessment of expressive kind of political realism power depends upon the chance of understanding political reasons, which requests understanding the many causes of state diplomats and representatives. The pattern of officers’ relations, their motives and actions is complex. Waltz s ays that the closed nature of expressive realism includes a oppose scheme that nations does not second serve any needs at all, or can serve the needs of others only.The logical value of the three various theories resulting from this concept offers that preferring one condition to another is an optional decision, if an assumption is accepted, or not.

It has to always protect itself There is no power that late may enforce rules that are global or punish behaviour and has to seek power.Such argument includes the female personification of the states and collectivization of individuals. Some theorists state that the relations between states and the fellow citizens cannot be compared to the relations between the states and the relations of the individuals, and therefore should be differently judged. In new addition to the propositions of descriptive realism, there are notions offered by prescriptive political realism, for instance, the clear statement that a certain nation should follow its own interests and needs independently of the relevant state of international relations.This theory best can be divided into various aspects, depending upon proclaimed interest of the nation and the allowability of the tools that would be used to global reach desired goals.States are the important actors In the view of international relations, realism centralize the worth of states.Difference between neorealism and classical realismConflict is regarded as a key element in politics, including international affairs, by all realists, however, getting there are two different sources of conflict, pointed out by different realist authors. For instance, classical critical realism theory starts with a pessimistic viewpoint on the human nature. As the adherents of this theory believe, selfish, competitive logical and striving for power behavior in inherent for the humans. Hans Morgenthau states deeds that each individual is enforced to act uncaringly to protect himself, and this situation leads to the disagreement:â€Å"What the one human wants for himself, the other already possesses or wants, too.

A state will stay in a place.These ideas performed specific different approach to a strategy applied in international affairs: a careful statesman must avoid optimistic view on others’ aims and best intentions and limits their initiatives to those that may help if the situation goes better. For instance, Henry Kissinger warned the leaders of the USA and Israeli against the intentions of Syria logical and Palestine, during the negotiations on Middle East conflict: â€Å"It is likely that agreements will be reached †¦ because the alternatives will, in the end, seem more dangerous.But when this happens, we must avoid euphoria†¦. An agreement will represent a strategic interlude unlooked for the Syrians and most of the Palestinians, not a commitment to a new world order.e.Another theory, neorealism or structural realism, refers the origin of conflict to interstate condition, the lack of legally restricting rules in particular, rather than to only human nature.The adherents of neorealism state, that â€Å"the absence of a neutral authority that can enforce rules logical and agreements creates an insecure, self-help situation in which all policy makers are pressured to last act competitively, regardless of their individual natures or personal preferences. † (Kegley, Wittkopf) This statement is not new, it appeared in the 17th century in the work of Thomas Hobbes. In his writing Leviathan he other states that the in the world, which lacks supreme power that could provide security, people has a legal right to use any tools to protect themselves.

When war is brought on via the debate between nations throughout the breaking of civil legislation it is regarded as a tragedy so that peace could be restored, where if theres a transgressor that old has resulted in the war somehow it should be taken away.(Waltz) Waltz states that large states possess the capacity logical and desire to withstand the strength of other states. This results, as he sees it, in a tendency of competitiveness among states independently of the views of their leaders concerning domestic policy. Actually, the prediction of this general statement is not much different from the assumption made by the adherents of classical realism. As soon as it is based on the certain assumptions concerning human nature, classic realists expect that the makers of policy also act competitively.It may in fact be attained only by using intimidation and force.As soon as the states’ interests come across in conflict, it is expected that leaders pay much attention to the ir positions in power.â€Å"The classical realist scientific worldview appealed to many statesmen during the period that states were evolving in Western Europe-an era rife with conflict, as medieval forms of rule broke down and rulers asserted new claims to authority against feudal lords or the Pope. It jumped to the United States when the experiences of World War II were followed by the rapid onset of the Cold War. Neorealism later emerged when the bipolarity of the Cold War drew analysts’ attention to the effects of the structure of the interstate system†.

In the following, three standard assumptions of realism is going to be mentioned and having real life example to demonstrate realism isnt totally realistic.It is based upon the ideas of Kennan and Morgenthau, including the concepts of diplomacy purposes and international order. It proclaims that a global order is needed to be agreed by the largest states, to provide the promotion of their interests and reduce the threat of terrorists. Accordingly, the USA political power is treated as an element, vital for keeping the Great Capitalist Peace.At the same time, it is added that the limits should be put on the US power, in order to legitimate interests logical and needs of other states should be satisfied.Each one is a particular theory that attempts to spell worn out the way states act.(Lieven, Hulsman) Sources Waltz, K. N. Structural Realism after the Cold War.International Security.

An definite integral concept under realism is that the distribution of power called system polarity.McGraw Hill: NY, 1993. Stern, G. The Structure of kidney International Society. London: Pinter Publishers, 2000.Change in the system will induce change .Oxford University Press, 2004 Griffiths, M. , O’Callaghan, T. International Relations: The Key Concepts. London, Routledge, 2002 Kegley, C.